Unseen Wars: Terrorism and insurgencies in the Global South

Understanding Insurgency and Terrorism in the Global South.

When people think of terrorism or insurgency, they often picture distant places—like central India, Mali, or Yemen. These areas are part of the "Global South," including much of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. While they seem far from our daily lives, conflicts there are deeply connected to global history, economics, and politics. Understanding these issues is essential. Terrorism and insurgency are often confused; terrorism is a tactic, and insurgency is a strategy. Many high-profile terrorist incidents occur in the Global South, but terrorism is a global issue with complex historical, political, and economic causes. Associating terrorism mainly with the Global South stems from biases in media and global power dynamics, not an objective reality. Insurgents may use terrorism to achieve their goals. Size is a distinguishing factor; terrorist groups often consist of a few individuals, while insurgent organisations, like Lebanese Hizballah or the LTTE, number in the thousands. Many significant' terrorist’ groups- such as Lebanese Hizballah, LTTE, and FARC – are better described as insurgencies that use terrorism than typical terrorist movements.

Historical Background

One of the fundamental causes of insurgency in the Global South is the legacy of colonialism. Many countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America experienced centuries of foreign domination, during which their natural resources were exploited, local governance structures were dismantled, and indigenous populations were marginalised. Colonial powers often imposed arbitrary borders, grouping together diverse ethnic, linguistic, and religious communities. This created deep-seated divisions that have continued to fuel conflict in the post-independence era.

For instance, in Africa, the Berlin Conference of 1884-85 divided the continent among European powers without considering existing cultural or ethnic divisions. This led to multiple internal conflicts after independence. In Nigeria, for example, colonial rule exacerbated tensions between the predominantly Muslim North and the Christian South, contributing to the rise of Boko Haram, an Islamist insurgent group that claims to fight against Western influence and government corruption.

Similarly, in South Asia, British colonial rule left behind unresolved issues, such as the Kashmir conflict between India and Pakistan. This region has been a flashpoint for insurgent activity for decades, driven by demands for autonomy, religious tensions, and political neglect. These historical injustices create environments where extremist ideologies can thrive.

Geographical Disadvantages and Safe Havens

The physical geography of many areas in the Global South plays a crucial role in supporting insurgencies. Remote mountain ranges, dense forests, and vast deserts provide ideal terrain for insurgent groups to operate with relative freedom. These regions often lie beyond the effective control of central governments, allowing non-state actors to establish training camps, arms depots, and recruitment centres.

For example, the rugged terrain of the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan has offered a safe haven for the Taliban and other militant groups. Similarly, the jungles of Colombia and the Philippines have long been utilised by groups such as the FARC and Abu Sayyaf, respectively, to evade government forces and conduct guerrilla warfare.

The Sahel region of Africa—a vast semi-arid area stretching across the continent—has also become a hotspot for insurgent activity. Countries like Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso are particularly vulnerable due to their porous borders, weak governance, and difficult terrain. These conditions have allowed jihadist groups linked to Al-Qaeda and the Islamic State to establish strongholds and carry out attacks with minimal resistance.

Underdevelopment and Poverty

Chronic underdevelopment is a significant driver of terrorism and insurgency in the Global South. High levels of poverty, unemployment, and limited access to education and healthcare contribute to a pervasive sense of hopelessness and disenfranchisement among many people. In such environments, insurgent groups can easily recruit members by offering financial incentives, a sense of purpose, or promises of a better future.

In Somalia, decades of civil war and state collapse have resulted in extreme poverty. The Islamist militant group Al-Shabaab has taken advantage of this situation by positioning itself as a provider of basic services and a defender of Islamic values against corrupt elites. Similarly, in Nigeria, Boko Haram has garnered support from impoverished northern communities by denouncing government corruption and pledging to establish an Islamic caliphate.

Education plays a crucial role in this dynamic. In regions where access to education is limited or skewed toward religious indoctrination, young people are more vulnerable to extremist ideologies. A lack of critical thinking skills and exposure to diverse viewpoints can create fertile ground for radicalisation.

Governance Failures and Corruption

Weak institutions and governance failures are widespread across much of the Global South. Corruption, nepotism, and inefficiency within government structures alienate citizens and erode public trust. When the state is perceived as illegitimate or incapable of delivering basic services, people may turn to non-state actors who promise justice, order, and economic opportunities.

For instance, in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the central government has historically struggled to assert control over its vast territory. Armed groups exploit this power vacuum to seize control of mineral-rich areas and extract resources to fund their operations. Often, these groups also provide services such as dispute resolution and security, further undermining state authority.

In Latin America, insurgent groups like the Shining Path in Peru and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) emerged as responses to state neglect and social inequality. These groups initially gained popular support by highlighting government failures and advocating for radical land and wealth redistribution.

Religious and Ethnic Tensions

Many insurgencies in the Global South are driven by religious or ethnic grievances. In diverse societies, competition for political power and economic resources often aligns with ethnic or religious identities, making conflicts more complex and violent. In Myanmar, the Rohingya Muslim minority faces systematic persecution from the Buddhist majority government and military.

Decades of marginalisation and violence have led to the radicalisation of some segments of the Rohingya population, resulting in armed resistance. This insurgency has triggered further military crackdowns, creating a vicious cycle of violence and repression. In the Middle East, the Sunni-Shia divide has fueled numerous insurgencies and civil wars, particularly in Iraq, Syria, Yemen, and Bahrain. Sectarian tensions are frequently manipulated by political elites and foreign powers, further complicating efforts to achieve peaceful conflict resolution.

External Interference and Proxy Wars Foreign interventions and proxy wars have significantly contributed to the persistence of insurgencies in the Global South. Powerful states often support insurgent groups to undermine rival governments or to expand their geopolitical influence. These interventions prolong conflicts, increase civilian casualties, and complicate efforts for negotiated settlements. For example, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, along with subsequent U.S. support for the Mujahideen, laid the groundwork for decades of conflict. After the Soviet withdrawal, Afghanistan descended into civil war, eventually culminating in the rise of the Taliban.

The U.S.- led invasion further intensified the situation. The Houthi takeover of northern Yemen led to a devastating war involving a Saudi-led coalition, resulting in one of the world’s worst humanitarian crises. Houthis express solidarity with Palestinian groups like Hamas, particularly during conflicts between Israel and Gaza. They have also conducted attacks in response to Israel’s actions, linking Yemen’s war to the Palestinian struggle. Hamas is supported by Iran, aligning it with the "Axis of Resistance" against Israel and the U.S., which increases regional tensions, particularly involving Israel, Saudi Arabia, and the U.S. Hamas and the Houthis are not formally allied, but both play a role in contributing to instability in the Middle East. They engage in direct conflicts, proxy warfare, and express ideological opposition to Western and Israeli influence. Their actions frequently escalate localized issues into larger regional crises, especially because of their connections to Iran, which views both groups as instruments in a broader geopolitical struggle.

CONCLUSION

Efforts to combat terrorism and insurgency in the Global South have involved both military and non-military strategies. Operations like India's Operation Sindoor illustrate a more assertive military approach to cross-border terrorism. However, experts stress the importance of comprehensive strategies that combine security measures with initiatives focused on improving governance, promoting economic development, and fostering social inclusion. Effectively addressing terrorism and insurgencies in the Global South requires a multifaceted strategy that goes beyond military intervention. This approach must strengthen institutions, promote inclusive development, and encourage regional and international cooperation to tackle the root causes of conflict and build resilient societies. Some of the regions most affected by Naxalism—covering parts of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Bihar, and Andhra Pradesh—are among the most underdeveloped in India.

Despite being rich in natural resources, these areas continue to experience poverty, inadequate infrastructure, and limited access to basic services. The reasons for this ongoing underdevelopment are complex, stemming from a combination of historical neglect, persistent conflict, and a lack of inclusive governance. A significant reason for the lack of development in certain regions is the ongoing armed conflict between Naxalite insurgents and the Indian state. The violence and instability deter investment and obstruct government efforts to provide essential services. As a result, schools, roads, and health centers either do not exist or operate under the constant threat of attack. Teachers, doctors, and development officers are often reluctant to work in these areas due to security concerns, leaving the local population without vital services.