Propaganda, disinformation, and Media influence| GeOped

Earlier, tanks used to roll down battlefields accompanied by airstrikes, cavalry, and infantry. In modern warfare, with missiles come memes, disinformation, and media narratives aimed at shaping global opinion. For instance, during the ongoing conflict between Iran and Israel, Iranian media claimed to have shot down two Israeli American-made F-35 fighter jets. Though these claims are unverified and of questionable authenticity, they surfaced in world media very rapidly and dented its image as an invincible jet. Despite having no evidence, this narrative has posed serious potential challenges to its exports.

Today, propaganda and disinformation have become central strategic weapons for the major powers like Russia, China, and the US. As the Realist theory of International Relations aptly describes, human nature is egoistic, driven by self-interest, and prone to conflict. Historically, we have witnessed numerous battles and wars which affirm this description. The quest for power has remained the central driving factor since the dawn of human civilization; the only change is in the methods and technologies.

In order to dive deeper into this realm of hybrid warfare, we need to understand key concepts, propaganda, disinformation, misinformation, and strategic media influences. Propaganda involves selective presentation of facts, and systematic dissemination of often biased information. The intention lies in shaping public opinion, spreading ideological beliefs, and serving political or military narratives. Disinformation is the intentional spread of false information and facts to manipulate the targeted audience. Misinformation, in contrast, refers to the unintentional spread of any false fact or inaccurate information through an error or misunderstanding. Although unintentional, it can still have damaging repercussions. Social media influence is the broader strategic tactic where nation states and other organizations with political authority attempt to shape global opinion. The state-controlled media networks efficiently carry out spreading these narratives.

Soft power is a term coined by Joseph Nye, meaning a country’s ability to influence others through culture, values, and ideas rather than military or economic force. It works by shaping preferences and gaining cooperation through attraction, not coercion. Countries use soft power via media, education, cultural programs, and diplomacy to build a positive image abroad.

Among the global powers, Russia stands out for its aggressive and strategic tactics to spread narratives, propaganda, and disinformation. Russia’s use of propaganda is deeply rooted in its Soviet past; during the Cold War era USSR extensively employed these methods of hybrid warfare. Even before the Soviet era, Russia under the Tsars did not have the level of technology to spread propaganda but it did have a well-organized network of bureaucrats spread across the country to facilitate this ideological control.

A developing Russian publishing industry had emerged to reach the educated Russians to propagate the Tsarist view of both the domestic and global apparatus.Retired Senior Foreign Service officer John Katzka describes cultural factors as the major factor facilitating the longstanding reliance on propaganda. For instance, he mentions that there has been continuity in the core values of Russians of giving primacy to shared and community life over individuality, a form of zero-sum economics and promotion of national security over economic interests. These core values led this region to become the epicenter of communism.He adds on by linking geography and history of the country, the flat plains running straight from Poland to Moscow have historically remained the primary concern of Russia.

All the major invasions took place through this geographical weakness, be it the invasion of France under Napoleon Bonaparte in 1812, or under Operation Barbarossa- Hitler's invasion of the Soviet Union. Russia has used this fear of invasion to instill their propaganda and keep public opinion on their side.

Russia has been under the system of authoritarian regime for a very long time and is said to still exist behind the veil of democracy. It is a well-accepted fact that spreading domestic propaganda is very easy; these closed and controlled societies, unlike liberal ones, prove advantageous for spreading disinformation and propaganda intended towards boosting public morale and keeping away foreign propaganda. It’s clear how significantly historical and cultural factors influenced the propaganda machinery of Russia.

Prior to the Soviet era, Russia and the US were allies, but after the decline of the Third Reich, power dynamics changed rapidly, leading to a bipolar world and an ideological war. As the epicenter of Communism and Socialism, Russia began using propaganda to spread its ideologies and disinformation against the ideology of the US; Liberalism and Democracy. It consistently attempted to spread its influence and bring more countries in the second bloc. For instance, the USSR had actively blocked all western news outlets and jammed radio broadcasting like the Voice of America and Radio Free Europe to prevent their propaganda surfacing among their masses. Simultaneously, it spread disinformation in the newly independent countries to make them anti-US.

In the post-Soviet era, Russia launched media outlets such as Russia Today (RT) and Sputnik, which act as international state-controlled news networks. They contribute by propagating state-sponsored narratives in foreign lands.In 2022, when Russia invaded Ukraine, it flagged off a massive disinformation campaign. For instance, it labeled this invasion as a special military operation, blaming NATO and the EU for provoking it.

It claimed that it was fighting against Nazis and circulated false videos on various platforms.Russia is a major player in the realm of propaganda, disinformation, and media influences. The intermingling of historical, geographical, and cultural factors have laid the foundation of Russia’s information warfare dynamics. Propaganda remains one of the widely used tools and mechanisms to maintain its influential stature in the contemporary world. 

China is another major power that exercises information warfare extensively. It is a unique nation with a highly regulated society. Historically, China has been subjected to many foreign invasions, including those by the Mongols, Japanese, and British, all of which have had a significant impact on its national mindset. The traditional belief that the emperor is the “Son of Heaven” is deeply rooted in Chinese political culture and it continues to influence the country’s present-day social and political system.

In modern times, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) controls almost all media outlets , newspapers, television, radio, and the internet, to ensure consistent messaging and prevent  any opposing views to surface. The government uses the Great Firewall to block access to global platforms like Google, Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, and WhatsApp. Instead of it , it promotes domestic platforms like WeChat, Weibo, and Douyin, which are closely monitored and censored.

China also uses its soft power globally through Confucius Institutes, cultural exchange programs, and international media like CGTN to spread favorable narratives. During the COVID-19 pandemic, China promoted the narrative that it managed the crisis better than Western countries, while downplaying early failures and silencing whistle-blowers. It has also been accused of spreading disinformation about the origins of the virus and criticizing other countries’ responses. 

China’s TikTok app has become a global phenomenon, especially among young people. Though it is just a fun app on the surface, many experts argue that it’s also a tool for subtle influence. The Chinese government can control the content that appears or disappears, promoting ideas friendly to China’s image while hiding controversial topics. This shows how social media can be used as a soft power tool in the information war.this is the reason many countries like India have blocked this app.

A recent example of China’s propaganda is its use of museums. In April 2025, China held national training for museum directors and  instructing them to present regions like Tibet and Xinjiang as always part of China. The CCP wants to counter “incorrect historical interpretations” and promote unity and territorial integrity. This actually shows how China uses cultural institutions to spread its state-approved narratives and block alternative views. These efforts help reinforce the government’s control over history and public opinion both inside and outside the country.

The Chinese government tightly controls information within its borders and strategically spreads its narratives abroad to protect its image and push its global agenda. This mix of internal censorship and external propaganda helps China maintain social control and expand its influence internationally. 

The United States has been a big player in using propaganda and media influence throughout its history, especially during wars and ideological fights. Its way is different from countries like Russia and China because the U.S. has a more open society and a free press. Still, the government has used official and unofficial ways to shape global opinion and promote its interests.

During World War I, the U.S. government created the Committee on Public Information (CPI) to get public support for the war. It made posters, films, newspapers, and speeches to encourage patriotism and make Germany look like the enemy. This helped unite people behind the war and keep morale high. They also censored anti-war voices, showing how controlling information was important to managing what people think.

In World War II, propaganda got bigger and better. The government used films, radio, newspapers, and posters to ask people to enlist, buy war bonds, and support rationing. Hollywood made movies about American heroism and the evil Axis powers. Radio reached millions with patriotic messages. This showed how media could bring a diverse country together and focus it on one enemy.

The biggest use of propaganda came in the Cold War, the fight between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. The U.S. wanted to promote democracy and fight communism. It used tools like Voice of America and Radio Free Europe to send news and pro-democracy messages into Eastern Europe and the USSR. These broadcasts gave people info that was censored at home and encouraged resistance.

During the Cold War, fear and anxiety were used a lot. American media showed communism as a big threat wanting to destroy freedom. This made people support high military spending and foreign actions. Movies, books, and news often had spies and communist plots, shaping what people thought inside the U.S. too.

The U.S. media also pushed a historical story that America was the “land of freedom,” the defender of democracy against totalitarianism. This helped justify its foreign policies and alliances like NATO. It also made the U.S. look like a symbol of hope, a story that still works today.

In recent years, the internet and social media changed the game. The U.S. now faces new problems with misinformation at home and disinformation from abroad. For example, during the 2016 and 2020 elections, Russian-backed groups spread false news and divisive content on social media to influence voters and cause chaos. At the same time, inside the U.S., fake news and conspiracy theories hurt trust in institutions and media.

Despite these problems, the U.S. still uses soft power well. American movies, music, tech, and brands shape global culture and ideas about freedom and rights. This cultural influence works along with official efforts to spread democracy and fight authoritarian ideas.

In short, the United States has used propaganda and media in many ways, changing with time and technology. From World War I posters to Cold War radio to today’s digital info battles, controlling information stays a key part of America’s global power.

Propaganda and disinformation challenge truth and trust between countries , making it harder for people to know what is actually real. This harms democracy by confusing voters and dividing societies. It goes against values like transparency, free speech, and fair elections. If propaganda keeps being used as a political weapon, lying and manipulation may become normal. In the future, new tech like AI and deepfakes will make these problems worse. The world needs to find ways to protect truth while allowing free expression. Without action, propaganda could destabilize countries and even the global system itself. 

No country is left untouched by this information war, whether an authoritarian regime or a democratic one. Propaganda, disinformation, and media influence have become central tools in global power struggles. As technology advances, these battles will only get more complex and harder to control. It’s important for nations and individuals to stay aware, protect truth, and promote transparency. Otherwise, the very foundations of trust and democracy risk being damaged worldwide.