India’s Narco-Geopolitical Dilemma Between Crescent and Triangle

Geography plays a pivotal role in shaping the contours and execution of a nation’s foreign policy. The relatively immutable geographical positioning of a state often confers strategic advantages while simultaneously posing persistent challenges and vulnerabilities. In the Indian case, its geostrategic location offers considerable leverage, positioned at the heart of South Asia, guarded by the formidable Himalayas to the north, and commanding access to critical sea lanes in the Indian Ocean. However, the same geography also renders India susceptible to a range of strategic threats. A particularly salient challenge arises in the context of transnational narcotics trafficking.

Geopolitically, India is situated between two of the world’s most prolific illicit opium-producing zones: the Golden Crescent to its west, comprising Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan and the Golden Triangle to its east, encompassing Myanmar, Laos, and Thailand. These regions are not only the epicentres of global heroin and opium production but also represent corridors through which drugs transit to reach international markets. This unique positioning places India at the nexus of global drug trafficking routes, thereby exacerbating its internal security landscape and complicating border management and foreign policy objectives.  India, by its geography, has increasingly become a transit hub, a consumption market, and a geopolitical victim of the narco-trafficking dynamics rooted in its vicinity.

The Western Front: The Golden Crescent and the Pakistan Route

The Golden Crescent, particularly Afghanistan, has historically been the largest source of illicit opium, with the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) consistently reporting Afghanistan as accounting for over 80% of global heroin production. Following the Taliban's resurgence in 2021, concerns over increased opium cultivation and trafficking have deepened.

In 2024, the area under cultivation was estimated at 12,800 ha, representing a 19% increase from 2023 (10,800 ha), but still significantly below pre-ban levels. In 2022, an estimated 232,000 ha were cultivated.[1]

Although the production has reduced significantly, the prices are at record high, with a kilogram of heroin priced as high as 750 US dollars, benefiting high-level traders and exporters in organised crime groups.[2] (see fig.1)

Figure 1 Annual Opium production in tons and average trade price per kilogram of opium, 2004-2002

Source- UNODC

India shares a long and sensitive border with Pakistan, through which heroin and opiates from Afghanistan frequently enter Indian territory. Punjab and Jammu & Kashmir have emerged as critical entry points. Intelligence agencies have repeatedly highlighted the role of Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) in facilitating narco-terrorism, whereby proceeds from drug trafficking are used to finance militant and terrorist activities in India.[3] This phenomenon has particularly destabilised Punjab and Kashmir, where drug addiction has become rampant among youth, further weakening the social fabric and fuelling radicalisation.

Heroin seizures across Jammu and Kashmir have grown more than fivefold in just four years -from 15 kilograms in 2018 to 80 kilograms in 2022 with 600,000 individuals as per the 2011 Census, are dependent on opium derivatives such as doda, phukki, poppy husk, heroin (including brown sugar and smack), and pharmaceutical opioids.

The Indo-Pak Border is a major transit hub for this illicit drug route as well as a perfect market (see Figure 2).

 IBSF’s SEIZURE OF DRUGS (IN KGS) ON INDIA-PAKISTAN BORDER IN PUNJAB W.E.F JANUARY 01, 2020 TO JUNE 30, 2023 

ITEMS/YEAR	2020	2021	2022	2023 (up to June)
Ganja	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.010
Hemp	0.000	0.250	0.120	0.000
Heroin	506.241	485.581	320.884	248.103
Opium	1.242	0.429	2.007	0.175
Poppy	0.000	0.000	0.000	5.700

Figure 2

Source: BSF | Posted on August 9, 2023 by PIB Delhi 

Drug trafficking syndicates and organised criminal networks in the Golden Crescent smuggle 60 to 70 per cent of their drugs to India, Sri Lanka, and South Africa by sea.[4] Data from India’s Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways highlights the seizure of 2,826 kg of drugs, comprising mostly heroin and cocaine, across India’s ports and coastal waters in 2023, the highest in five years.[5] The maritime route through the Arabian Sea, especially via Gujarat's coast, has become increasingly active in drug trafficking. Several high-profile heroin seizures, some exceeding hundreds of kilograms, have been made in ports such as Mundra and Kandla, indicating the growing sophistication and scale of narco-networks operating along the western seaboard.

The Eastern Front: The Golden Triangle and the Northeast

On India's eastern flank lies the Golden Triangle. Myanmar, India’s direct eastern neighbour, remains at the heart of this drug route. In 2023, Myanmar became the world’s top opium producer, by overtaking Afghanistan with illicit crop cultivation expanding from 99,000 to 116,000 acres (opium production 1080 tons)[6](see more in figure 3). India shares a 1,643 km-long porous border with Myanmar, stretching across the insurgency-affected states of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram. These regions are characterised by difficult terrain, weak administrative presence, and complex ethno-political dynamics. Insurgent groups, local armed militias, and cross-border kinship networks facilitate drug trafficking from Myanmar into India. Manipur and Mizoram have become primary conduits for heroin and methamphetamine inflows, utilising two primary routes. One from Mandalay through Monewa and Kalewa to Tamu-Moreh (Manipur) or Rih-Champhai (Mizoram), and another from Bhamo through Homalin to Nagaland, onward to Assam, Kolkata, and beyond in India.[7]

Figure 3 Source- UNODC

The conflict in Myanmar, following the military coup of 2021, has further exacerbated the situation (see figure 3). With the state losing control over peripheral areas, non-state actors have intensified narcotics production and trafficking, often using proceeds to finance arms procurement and insurgency. In 2023, opium production increased to 1,080 metric tonnes, up from 400 metric tonnes in 2020. Indian intelligence inputs have revealed that synthetic drugs manufactured in eastern Myanmar are smuggled into Northeast India and then distributed further into mainland India and neighbouring countries, including Bangladesh and Nepal. 

India as a Transit, Destination, and Victim

India is no longer just a passive transit route for narcotics; it is increasingly a destination country. The rising domestic demand for heroin and synthetic drugs has transformed India into a lucrative market for drug traffickers. According to UNODC's World Drug Report 2023, India is witnessing a consistent uptick in opioid consumption, with heroin and pharmaceutical opioids such as tramadol and codeine-based syrups widely abused.

States like Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, and Haryana on the western side and Manipur, Assam, and Mizoram in the east are grappling with an epidemic of addiction. Urban centres such as Delhi, Mumbai, and Bengaluru have also emerged as hotspots for drug consumption. Data from the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment reveals that over 2.8 million Indians are opioid-dependent, while over 23 million are active consumers.[8]

India's vast coastline, extensive rail network, and burgeoning air traffic have made it a favoured corridor for international drug trafficking. Ports such as Mumbai, Chennai, and Kochi have witnessed major drug seizures, often in collaboration with international enforcement agencies. The interplay between domestic consumption and global trafficking routes positions India as a crucial node in the global narcotics economy.

Strategic Implications: More Than a Law-and-Order Issue

The implications of this crisis extend beyond criminality and addiction. Narcotics trafficking in India intersects with terrorism, insurgency, corruption, and border instability. Narco-funds are used to finance extremist violence, purchase arms, and corrupt local officials, thereby weakening state institutions. This strategic dimension of narcotics trade poses a national security threat that warrants an urgent and multidimensional response mechanism.

In Jammu & Kashmir, narco-terrorism has emerged as a dual strategy to destabilise the region: physically through addiction and economically through black-market financing. Similarly, in the Northeast, narcotics money sustains insurgent groups, prolongs ethnic conflicts, and undermines peace processes.

The criminalisation of border economies due to drug money also erodes legitimate livelihoods and governance structures.

Corruption within enforcement agencies, lack of coordination among central and state authorities, and the political sensitivity of border regions further complicate counter-narcotic strategies. As drugs and arms often move through the same logistical corridors, narcotics trafficking cannot be treated in isolation but as part of a broader strategy involving counterinsurgency, intelligence reform, and border security.

Policy Responses: Is India Prepared?

India's legal and institutional framework to combat drug trafficking is anchored in the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, 1985. The Act criminalises the production, possession, and trafficking of narcotics and psychotropic substances and mandates stringent penalties. The Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) is the nodal agency for drug law enforcement in India, supported by state police forces, the Border Security Force (BSF), Assam Rifles, and the Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI).

However, enforcement alone has proven insufficient. Challenges persist in the form of poor inter-agency coordination, jurisdictional overlaps, inadequate training, and limited technological capabilities. Drone surveillance and satellite imaging, which are crucial for monitoring poppy cultivation and border movements, are still underutilised.

Indian investigative agencies continue to face challenges in conducting cyber investigations, particularly those involving the dark web and cryptocurrency-based transactions. As recently as December 2024, the Delhi Crime Branch uncovered a cartel operating via the dark web, seizing cannabis worth ₹2 crore just ahead of the Delhi Assembly Elections.[9]

India has also engaged in bilateral and multilateral cooperation to address the narco challenge. It is a member of the South Asian Regional Intelligence and Coordination Centre (SARICC) and collaborates with the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Bilateral mechanisms with Myanmar and Bangladesh include coordinated border patrols and information sharing. However, regional cooperation is often hampered by political instability, particularly in Myanmar and Afghanistan, and mutual mistrust among neighbours.

Rehabilitation and demand reduction strategies are also underdeveloped. The Ministry of Social Justice runs de-addiction and awareness programs, but they suffer from underfunding, urban bias, and lack of community-level outreach, particularly in rural and border areas most affected by addiction.

Conclusion: Navigating the Trap

India's entrapment between the Golden Crescent and Golden Triangle is not just a cartographic coincidence but a geopolitical reality with deep-rooted strategic consequences. The country's role as a consumer, transit route, and geopolitical victim necessitates a paradigm shift in how the narcotics problem is understood and addressed. It is imperative to integrate counter-narcotics efforts into broader national security, foreign policy, and development strategies.A robust Narco-Geopolitics Doctrine is needed, one that recognises narcotics trafficking as a cross-sectoral threat and promotes coordinated action across law enforcement, intelligence, foreign policy, and public health. Enhancing regional cooperation, investing in surveillance technology, reforming border governance, and expanding rehabilitation infrastructure are essential steps toward dismantling the narco-trap.

Only through such a holistic approach can India hope to insulate itself from the destabilising forces emanating from the twin narco frontiers that surround it.

[1] Opium Poppy Cultivation (Volume 1): Afghanistan Drug Insights — Read-Me.Org -All Free

[2] Afghanistan: Opium prices approach historic peaks, crime syndicates benefit | UN News

[3] Pakistan-sponsored narco terror is form of asymmetric warfare against India - The Economic Times 

[4] The Narcoterrorism Challenge to India’s National Security

[5] 2,826 kg of drugs seized at ports, in coastal waters this year - The Hindu BusinessLine

[6] “Myanmar Overtakes Afghanistan as World’s Top Opium Producer: UN,” Aljazeera, December 12, 2023, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/12/12/myanmar-now-worlds-top-opium-producer-surpassing-afghanistan-un 

[7] https://www.thesangaiexpress.com/Encyc/2024/10/7/Sreeparna-Banerjee-ORF-Observer-Research-Foundation-Contd-from-previous-issueThere-are-two-primary-traff.html 

[8] NDDTC, AIIMS submits report “Magnitude of Substance use in India” to M/O Social Justice & Empowerment

[9] Gaps In the System: Addressing the Challenges of Drug Enforcement in India | O.P. Jindal Global University